Edward Thorndike, B.F Sinner

Edward Thorndike:

 1. Explain Thorndike's puzzle-box experiment.

- Thorndike believed that learning occurred by trial and error. The puzzle-box experiment required cats to step on a switch inside a cage so the door of the cage would open and the cat could go free.  The first time, the cats did not know how to get out so they tried everything, but when they stepped by accident on the switch the door opened. On succeeding trials, they started operating the switch faster.

2. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Effect".

-The law of effect suggested that responses followed closely by satisfaction will become attached to the situation and then the action is most likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. On the other hand, if the situation is followed by pain, the behavior of the response I less likely to occur.

3. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Exercise".

- The law of exercise stated that behavior is established more through connections of a stimulus and response.

B.F. Skinner:

 1. Explain Skinner's concept of Operant Conditioning

-States that behavior is based on past behaviors and its past consequences.

2. What does reinforcement always do?

-Reinforcement always makes the behavior increase.

 3. What does a punishment always do?

-Punishment always makes the behavior decrease.

 4. Explain the difference between "positive" and "negative" as they are used in operant conditioning.

- Positive is used in operant conditioning when something is given in reward, and negative is when something is taken away.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/689639/Thorndikes-law-of-exercise

http://psychology.about.com/od/lindex/g/lawofeffect.htm

http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch08_animals/thorndikes_puzzle_box.html

Pavlov and Watson

Ivan Pavlov:

1. What was Pavlov actually studying when he developed his theory of classical conditioning?

-Pavlov was studying the digestive system in animals, but was then interested in the reaction of animals in presented situations.

2. Explain (in detail) how Pavlov's experiment was conducted.

- The dog was brought food to measure salivation. He wanted to know if he could make a dog salivate without the presence of food. He first rung the bell and then brought the food, after doing this several times the dog started drooling when the bell was rung but no food was presented.

3. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment.

-The conditioned stimulus was the bell, the unconditioned stimulus was the food, and the conditioned response from the experiment was the dog’s salivation.

4. Explain what extinction means in relation to classical conditioning.

-Extinction is a slow but sure weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditional response tendency.

5. Explain what stimulus generalization means in relation to classical conditioning.

-Stimulus generalization is when the dog who has been conditioned to salivate to the sound of only ONE bell, may salivate to a similar sounding bells.

6. Explain what stimulus discrimination means in relation to classical conditioning.

-Stimulus discrimination is when you are taught to respond to only one stimulus but not another.

7. Explain at least two limitations of this experiment.

-Pavlov had to change the route of the dogs salivary gland, to prove this worked on humans he also had to test it on them.

8. Explain what Pavlov theorized about how we learn.

- He theorized that we learned through association.

John B. Watson:

1. Explain (in detail) how Watson's "Little Albert" study was conducted?

-Watson wanted to study the behaviors in humans. He first presented Little Albert several furry animals. A rat, a bunny, a monkey, a dog, and two mask one with hair and one without hair. 2 months later little Albert was placed in a laboratory and was exposed to a white rat which he was able to play with. When Albert played with the rat, n the background Watson and his assistant would band on a steel bar with a hammer frightening little Albert.

2. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Watson's study?

-Conditioned stimulus was the rat, the unconditioned stimulus was the loud noise, and the conditioned response was Albert crying.

3. Explain at least two limitations of this study.

- It was unethical, and could not be tested on another human again.

4. Explain Watson's law of frequency.

- The more frequent a stimulus and response occurs in association with each other, the stronger the habit.

 5. Explain Watson's law of recency.

- The response that has occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely associated with that stimulus.

6. Explain the basic assumptions of behaviorism according to Watson.

- He believed that behaviorism was almost all psychology since he believed that psychology was the study of human’s behavior. He thought he could study people’s behavior objectively. 

Works Cited

http://nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/pavlov/readmore.html

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/psychbeginnings.html

http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0497_DeMar_-_Behaviorism.html

Selected Articles about Sleep

        Article 1

Judith A. Owens, M.D M.P.H of the Hasbro Children's Hospital, Providence, and colleagues, contributed Rhode Island high schools with a study that showed how Delayed School Start Time associated with an improvement in adolescent’s behavior. For the purpose of this study class time was delayed 30 minutes. After this, the students were required to complete the online retrospective Sleep Habits Survey. The results that came back from this test were extraordinary, “the percentage of students rating themselves as at least somewhat unhappy or depressed decreased significantly (from 65.8 percent to 45.1 percent), as well as the percentage who felt annoyed or irritated throughout the day (from 84 percent to 62.6 percent)”(kyla). In my opinion I think this study showed that even 30 minutes more of sleep helps students have a better day without drowsiness, depression, and irritations.

-JAMA and Archives Journals. "Delayed School Start Time Associated With Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors." ScienceDaily 8 July 2010. 2 November 2010 <http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2010/07/100705190532.htm>.

 Article 2

The study, authored by Zaw W. Htwe, MD, of Norwalk Hospital's Sleep Disorders Center in Norwalk, Conn., reported how High School students with a delay school start time Sleep Longer, and report less daytime sleepiness. This study focused on delaying school start time 40 minutes and then testing its students with the School Sleep Habits Questionnaire and observe their results. "Following a 40-minute delay in start time, the students utilized 83 percent of the extra time for sleep. More students reported "no problem" with sleepiness after the schedule change”(Academy of sleep).In my opinion I think that students when given a later school start, use that time for sleep. This then proves that students then go to school ready to learn and wide awake.

- American Academy of Sleep Medicine. "High School Students With A Delayed School Start Time Sleep Longer, Report Less Daytime Sleepiness." ScienceDaily 11 June 2008. 2 November 2010 <http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2008/06/080609071202.htm>.

 Article 3

Jennifer Peszka, PhD, psychology department chair at Hendrix College in Conway, Ark., conducted an experiment that showed how being a night owl in high school connects to a lower college GPA. The study was based in a data showing 89 students (between 17 and 20 years old) preparing to begin their freshman year and 34 of those students as they completed their freshman year in college. “Results indicate that evening types had significantly lower first year college GPA (2.84) than morning and intermediate types (3.18). These evening-type students showed a greater decrease in their GPA during the transition from high school to college”(Academy of Sleep). In my opinion the changes of time and classes in college affected the students GPA. They were not receiving a good amount of sleep and this was reflected in their grades.

-American Academy of Sleep Medicine. "Being A Night Owl In High School Is Linked With Lower Colleges GPA." ScienceDaily 11 June 2009. 2 November 2010 <http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2009/06/090609072813.htm>.

Pictures

-http://rockycha.files.wordpress.com/2007/09/fatigue.jpg

-http://stuffmedicalstudentslike.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/2329740051_a02fe72fe6.jpg?w=353&h=282

-http://sleepzine.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/snoring.jpg

-http://i124.photobucket.com/albums/p31/ShayA29/Vintage/Funny.png

Teenagers

“No one feels another's grief, no one understands another's joy. People imagine they can reach one another. In reality they only pass each other” (Franz Schubert) When teenagers hit the teenage years nobody understands them, not even themselves.  Each kid has different hormonal changes that can make him or her very angry or emotional at one point, and the next very happy. They feel pressured by their parents at all times, and when they can’t take it any more they have out bursts. It is like their own parents don’t know them and treat them as if they are dumb or still kids.

This is the age when teenagers are trying or experimenting with different things like alcohol, and drugs. Many of their parents are afraid of this because they think that teenagers only cause trouble. Every kid wants their parents to understand them and their actions, but parents never listen. They assume that teens know or understand everything they tell them, but adolescents don’t, and that’s when the problems and fighting start.

            Every growing adolescent needs 9:30 hours of sleep everyday. Many teens stay up late playing video games, doing homework, or watching T.V.  They need all the rest they can get or else their learning abilities will get worse. It is hard for parents to get their children up in the morning. They also have to be remembering their children to do their homework, or to take the trash out.

            Teenagers are in a growth and emotion spurt at this age. No one understands them, and their parents are always scolding them.  One minute they are having out bursts and the next they are very cheerful. Parents and other adults have to make an effort to understand them and help them.

Link 

-http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/understands_4.html

Phineas Gage

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Phineas Gage was a worker or part of the crew in railroads constructions who worked by excavating rocks to make way for the railroads.  His job included drilling holes and filling them with dynamite. Phineas gage is one of the earliest cases with brain damage that survived. On September 1848 while working on the Rutland and Burlington railroad a terrible accident happened.  When Phineas gage was compacting the explosive powder with his tamping rod, a spark ignited the powder, this made his tamping rod go straight up into his lower left cheek bone and behind his eye, passing right through his skull. As a result to this accident and his injuries in the frontal lobe, his wife and close ones began to notice very dramatic changes in his personality. He became an aggressive man with anger problems.  He was antisocial, with bad manners and could not hold a job for long. We learned that the frontal lobe controls your emotions and your personality. After the damage done to Gages frontal lobe you could see extreme changes in his personality.

Phineas gages story connects with the theories of brain localization and lateralization. Brain localization means that different parts of the brain have different functions, and that all the parts of the brain do not do the same thing, while Brain lateralization means that some functions are carried out mostly on only one side of the brain. Phineas Gage’s accident was a huge step for scientists to learn about the brain and how it worked.

Links

http://lecerveau.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/articles_pdf/phyneas_gage.pdf

http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/12/04/the-incredible-case-of-phineas-gage/

http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~bbrown/psyc150`1/brain/loclat.htm

Pictures

http://joeltalks.com/web_images/phineas_gage_from_uiowa_d_neurology.jpg

http://www.sharpbrains.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/sfo-brain-labeled-to-match-computer-guy-v2.JPG

http://suifaijohnmak.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/left_brain_right_brain.jpg

Nature versus nurture- Athletic Ability

http://assets.sbnation.com/imported_assets/7989/001365726.jpg

Nature versus nurture is a topic that has been well debated all around the world. It means whether a humans characteristics are formed by their genetics or from their environment. The nature versus nurture issue in athletic ability is very divisive.  Was it your parent’s genes or was it the training that made you great? Some scientists believe that if you have a parent or parents that are great athletes you were born to be an athlete, but other scientist believe that in order to become great you have to practice, be dedicated, and have the right training.  In my opinion I think both nature, and nurture play a part in athletic abilities. You need the right training but you also need a parent that was an athlete or his genes to help you and give you the right environment.

            Using the research I have done, scientists and psychologists have different opinions regarding athletic abilities. Dr. Karen Fish from Stanford University once said, “Without training and opportunities, artists and athletes such as these probably would not have much success. And without genetics, they would have had an even harder time.” This means that athletes need both nature and nurture to reach the top.  For example, the great basketball player Reggie Miller who over came leg deformities and achieved greatness was in big part because of nurture. If he hadn’t practiced, or dedicated time to it he wouldn’t have become a great basketball player, but he also had the height from his father’s genes, which also helped. “Currently, the most radical viewpoint representing the primacy of training and environmental factors is the Theory of Deliberate Practice, a general theory of expertise presented by K. Anders Ericsson and his colleagues” (Baker 1). Deliberate Practice is formed by activities that help develop abilities that didn’t belong naturally. It also requires attention and dedication, and it would not bring financial benefits immediately. This is stating that athletic ability has nothing to do with your genes. If you want to reach the top you have to work hard, dedicate time to it, and have the right training. This can show us how people have different ideas and opinions about athletic ability. Do your genes form athletic ability or do you become great by practice and more practice?

http://www.pressomatic.com/tridentacademy/upload/soccer.jpg

            In conclusion there are different theories debating nature versus nurture in a humans athletic ability. Scientists and psychologists ask themselves this question a lot. Are athletes born or made? Are you a great soccer player because your father was one, or did you receive right training your entire life? In my opinion athletes are made great. If you want to achieve greatness and your goals you have to dedicate time and give everything you’ve got. You’ve got to practice and work very hard and in the end you will be rewarded. “Desire is the key to motivation, but it's determination and commitment to an unrelenting pursuit of your goal - a commitment to excellence - that will enable you to attain the success you seek.”(Mario Andretti 1)

Links

http://expertfootball.com/training/naturevsnurture.php

http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=91

http://thinkexist.com/quotation/desire_is_the_key_to_motivation-but_it-s/216164.html

http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0102/jb.htm

Nature vs Nurture

    Nature versus Nurture is a term that was first used by the English Victorian polymath Francis Galton who was born the 16^th of February 1822. Nature versus Nurture states whether a person’s behavior or ideas comes from their genetics or surroundings. Its theory debates whether an individual’s quality (nurture, nativism, and innate) or an experience (nurture, empiricism, and behaviorism) determines your differences in your physical and individual traits.
    The overall belief of this topic has not yet been decided. Some scientists believe that an individual’s personality depends on its genetics, or in the environment and daily surroundings. They are debating whether one or the other is correct, but scientists do know that both of them have a role in our lives.  In my opinion it is really hard to decide whether our actions and personality comes from our genetics or from our surroundings. If I would have to choose I would say that both have an important part. Your personality can be the same as your parents or your grandparents, but being with the same people and environment can also form your personality. Nature versus Nurture is a great topic that was discovered in the 13^th century and yet, has not been decided today.

URL
-http://www.ask.com/bar?q=nature+vs+nurture&page=1&qsrc=2891&dm=all&ab=0&u=http%3A%2F%2Fgenealogy.about.com%2Fcs%2Fgeneticgenealogy%2Fa%2Fnature_nurture.htm&sg=XJ1tY2uz%2Be%2BelRO5FyPq1URyps0ESyvlijFLF6jKtGk%3D%0D%0A&tsp=1282923785540


-http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/nature_nurture.html

Charles Darwin

         Charles Darwin was an English naturalist, who established the theory of evolution. He was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury into a wealthy and connected family. In 1801 he joined a 5 year expedition around the world on a ship called the HMS Beagle. On his expedition Charles Darwin found out by analyzing fossils that animals have lived for thousands of years and through time the species had changed. He created The Theory of Natural Selection which said that any animal or plant that suited their environment where more likely to survive and reproduce, passing characteristics to help them survive their offspring, changing the species over time.

     When he returned to England Darwin had a hard time presenting his theory to the world. Many people in those days believed only in God’s word and the bible. They thought Charles Darwin was contradicting the bible and going against the religion. Charles Darwin had many worries of publishing his book. He could get in big problems if he contradicted the Church and Bible. Even though his theory was a contradiction to his religion he published his book in 1859 called “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”. Charles Darwin died on the 19th of April, 1882.

Work Cited

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/darwin_charles.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection

What is psychology, and why is it worth studyng?

Psychology is a field that studys the human mind and behavior. It helps us study why people behave, think, and feel the way they do. Some of the feilds that psychologists work on are mental health treatments, and other areas that affect your health and daily life. Psychology is worth studying because it helps us in many ways. It helps us understand our daily life, family, education, and work. (Word count 69)

Link 1
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychology101/f/psychfaq.htm

Link 2
http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080507192435AAeDtTQ